Author name: Engr. Aneel Kumar

The term ACE (area control error) is used to describe the instantaneous difference between a balancing authority’s net actual interchange flow and the scheduled interchange flow, taking into account the effects of frequency and metering error. The term flat tie line control is used when only tie line flows are closely monitored in consideration of […]

The most frequently used fuels for large-scale power generation are oil, natural gas, and coal. Figure3 illustrates the principal elements of a fossil fuel power plant. Fuel handling includes transport by rail, on ships, or through pipelines. A power plant usually maintains several days of fuel reserve at any one time. Oil and gas are

Electrical power can be produced in many ways, including chemical reactions, heat, light, or mechanical energy. Most electrical power produced today is through hydroelectric plants and nuclear energy, and by burning coal, oil, or natural gas. Fossil fuel and nuclear-fission plants use steam turbines to deliver the mechanical energy required to rotate large three-phase generators,

In addition to the basic components of a synchronous generator (the rotor, stator, and their windings), auxiliary devices are used to help maintain the machine’s operation within acceptable limits. These devices include the following: GOVERNOR The function of the governor is to control the mechanical power input to the generator. The control is via a

The process of interrupting the current in an ac system is aided by the fact that ac current goes through zero every half-cycle, or approximately every 8 ms in a 60 Hz system. The absence of a natural current zero in dc makes it difficult to develop a dc circuit breaker. There are three principal

In cases where HVDC is selected on technical considerations, it may be the only practical option, as in the case of an asynchronous interconnection. However, for long-distance power transmission, where both ac and HVDC are practical, the final decision is dependent on the total costs of each alternative. The total cost of a transmission system

High-voltage dc (HVDC) transmission offers several advantages over alternating current for long-distance power transmission and asynchronous interconnection between two ac systems, including the ability to precisely control the power flow without inadvertent loop flows that can occur in an interconnected ac system. HVDC transmission can be classified into one of three broad categories: • Back-to-back

Distribution systems are designed to maintain service voltages within specified limits during normal and emergency conditions. Typical voltage limits are: • For service to residential customers, the voltage at the point of delivery shall not exceed 5% above or below the nominal voltage. This is equivalent to the band between 114 and 126 V for

The circuit breaker scheme used at a substation provides for varying degrees of reliability and maintainability on both the input and output sides. Each additional circuit breaker provides greater reliability and flexibility in maintaining the bus energized during a fault or during maintenance. However, the cost also increases with each circuit breaker. Hence, the selection

Specialized hardware is necessary to interconnect the elements of a power-distribution system. Utility control and switching systems operate under demanding conditions, including high voltage and current levels, exposure to lightning discharges, and 24-hour-a-day use. For reliable performance, large margins of safety must be built into each element of the system. The primary control and switching